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@@ -225,3 +225,5 @@ employeeNames DS2 = DS1; //VALUE SEMANTICS for the XYZ class: //Assignments and the copy constructor may be used with XYZ objects ``` + +[01/14 ->](01-14.md) diff --git a/01-14.md b/01-14.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..11abf45 --- /dev/null +++ b/01-14.md @@ -0,0 +1,473 @@ +[\<- 01/12](01-12.md) + +### Header Files + +- What's the problem below? +- What's the solution + +``` +//file "a.h" +class foo +{ + ... +}; +``` + +``` +//file "b.h" +#include "a.h" +``` + +``` +//file "c.c" +#include "a.h" +#include "b.h" +``` + +- Problem: `a.h` is included twice +- Solutions + - One (kinda bad) solution is to not include `a.h` in `c.c` + - A better solution is to provide namespace + +### Namespace + +- Namespaces provide method for preventing name conflicts in large project +- A namespace is a name that a programmer selects to identify a portion of the her work +- A single namespace, such as `scu_coen79_2`, may have several different namespace groupings + - e.g. one for class definition, one for implementation + +``` +namespace scu_coen79_2 +{ + //any item that belongs to the namespace is written here +} +``` + +### Global Namespace & std + +- **The Global Namespace:** + - Any items that are not explicitly placed in a namespace become part of the global namespace + - These items can be used at any point without any need for a `using` statement or a scope resolution operator + +- **C++ Standard Library (std namespace)** + - All of the items in the C++ Standard Library are automatically part of the `std` namespace + - When using C++ header file names i.e. `<iostream>` or `<cstdlib>` + - The simplest way is to add `using namespace std;` + +### Using Namespaces + +- How to make the items that are defined in the namespace: + 1. Make all of the namespace available + - Syntax: `using namespace ns_name;` + - Example: `using namespace scu_coen79_2A;` + - Question: Why is this a bad idea to put a `using` statement in a header file? + 2. If we need to **use only a specific item from the namespace** + - Syntax: `using ns_name::name;` + - Example: `using scu_coen79_2A::throttle;` + 3. Use any item by **prefixing the item name with the namespace and "::"** at the point where the item is used + - Syntax: `ns_name::name` + - Example: `scu_coen79_2A::throttle apollo` + +--- + +# Classes and Parameters + +- Classes can be used as the type of a **function's parameter**, or as the type of the **return value** from a function +- For example: + - You may pass a data structure to a function to apply some changes to the data structure + - The return value of a function may be a data structure + +## Programming Example: The Point Class + + + +- The `point` class: Is a data structure to store and manipulate the location of a single point on a plane +- The point class has the member function listed here + - There is a constructor to initialize a point + - There is a member function to shift a point by given amounts along the x and y axes + - There is a member function to rotate a point by 90 degrees in a clockwise direction around the origin + - There are two constant member functions that allow us to retrieve the current x and y coordinates of a point + +- **Header file** of the Point class: + +``` +namespace scu_coen79_2A{ + + class point{ + + public: + //CONSTRUCTOR + //with default arguments (discussed later) + point(double initial_x = 0.0, double initial_y = 0.0); + + //MODIFICATION MEMBER FUNCTIONS + void shift(double x_amount, double y_amount); + void rotate90(); + + //CONSTANT MEMBER FUNCTIONS + double get_x() const { return x; }; + double get_y() const { return y; }; + + private: + double x; //x coordinate of this point + double y; //y coordinate of this point + }; +} +``` + +## Default Arguments + +- **Default Arguments** is a value that will be used for an argument when a programmer does not provide an actual argument +- Example: + - `point(double initial_x = 0.0, double initial_y = 0.0);` + - Look at the header file of the point class + - `point a(-1, 0.8);` + - Uses the usual constructor with two arguments + - `point b(-1);` + - Uses -1 for the first argument and uses the default argument, `initial_y = 0.0`, for the second argument + - `point c;` + - Uses default arguments for both `initial_x = 0.0` and `initial_y = 0.0` + +- The default argument is specified only once (in the prototype) and not in the function's implementation +- A function with several arguments does not need to specify default arguments for every argument +- If only some of the arguments have defaults, `then those arguments must be right-most in the parameter list` +- In a function call, arguments with default values **may be omitted from the right end** of the actual argument list +- Example: + +``` +int date_check(int year, int month=1, int date=1); + +//... +date_check(2000); +date_check(2000, 7); +date_check(2000, 7, 22); +``` + +## The Point Class (Cont'd) + +- **Implementation file** of the Point class + +``` +#include "point.hpp" + +namespace scu_coen79_2A{ + + point::point(double initial_x, double initial_y){ + x = initial_x; + y = initial_y; + } + + void point::shift(double x_amount, double y_amount){ + x += x_amount; + y += y_amount; + } + + void point::rotate90(){ + double new_x; + double new_y; + + //For a 90 degree clockwise rotation, the new x is the original y + new_x = y; + //and the new y is -1 times the original x + new_y = -x; + x = new_x; + y = new_y; + } +} +``` + +## Parameters + +- Three different kinds of **parameters**: + - **Value Parameters** + - **Reference Parameters** + - **Const Reference Parameters** + +### Value Parameters + +- Example: + - The function's parameter (`p` in this case) is referred to as the **formal parameter** to distinguish it from the value that is passed in during the function call + +``` +int rotations_needed(point p){ + //Postcondition: The value returned is the number of 90-degree clockwise rotations needed to move p into the upper-right quadrant (where x>=0 and y>=0) + + int answer; + answer = 0; + while((p.get_x() < 0) || (p.get_y() < 0)){ + p.rotate90(); + ++answer; + } + return answer; +} + +//... +point sample(6, -4); //Constructor places the point at x=6, y=-4 +cout << "x coordinate is " << sample.get_x() << " y coordinate is " << sample.get_y() << endl; +cout << "Rotations: " << rotations_needed(sample) << endl; +//The passed value (sample in this case) is the argument (sometimes called the actual argument or the actual parameter) +cout << "x coordinate is " << sample.get_x() << "y coordinate is " << sample.get_y() << endl; + +//output: +x coordinate is 6 y coordinate is -4 +Rotations: 3 +x coordinate is 6 y coordinate is -4 +``` + +- A **value parameter** is declared by writing the type name followed by the parameter name +- With a value parameter, the **argument** provides the initial value for the **formal parameter** +- The value parameter is implemented as a **local variable** of the function + - Therefore: Any changes made to the parameter in the body of the function **will leave the argument unaltered** + +### Reference Parameters + +- Example: + +``` +void rotate_to_upper_right(point& p){ + //Postcondition: The point p has been rotated in 90-degree increments until p has been moved into the upper right quadrant (where x>=0 and y>=0) + + while((p.get_x() < 0) || (p.get_y() < 0)){ + p.rotate90(); + } +} + +//... +point(6, -4); // Constructor places point at x = 6, y = -4 +cout << "x coordinate is " << sample.get_x() << " y coordinate is " << sample.get_y() << endl; +rotate_to_upper_right(sample); +cout << "x coordinate is " << sample.get_x() << "y coordinate is " << sample.get_y() << endl; + +//output: +x coordinate is 6 y coordinate is -4 +Rotations: 3 +x coordinate is 4 y coordinate is 6 +``` + +- A **reference parameter** is declared by writing the type name followed by the character `&` and the parameter name +- With a reference parameter, any use of the parameter within the body of the functino will access the argument from the calling program +- Changes made to the formal parameter in the body of the function **will alter the argument** + +### Pitfall + +- In order for a reference parameter to work correctly, **the data type of an argument must match exactly with the data type of the formal parameter** + +``` +void make_int_2(int& 1){ + //Postcondition: i has been set to 2 + + i = 2; +} +``` + +``` +double d; +d = 0; +make_int_2(d); +cout << d; + +//Output: 0 +``` + +- No change in `d` because `d` is the wrong data type, a separate *integer* copy of d is created to use as the argument + +- If the argument's data type does not exactly match the data type of the formal parameter: + - The compiler will try to **convert** the argument to the correct type + - If the conversion is possible, then **the compiler treats the argument like a value parameter**, passing a **copy** of the argument to the function + +### Const Reference Parameters + +- When we don't want a programmer to worry about whether the function changes the actual argument +- A solution that provides **the efficiency of a reference parameter** along with the **security of a value parameter** + +- Example: + - A function that computes the distance between two points + - The function has two point parameters, and **neither parameter is changed by the function** + - `double distance(const point& p1, const point& p2);` + +## When the Type of a Function's Return Valeu is a Class + +- The type of a function's return value may be a class + +``` +point middle(const point& p1, const point& p2){ + //Postcondition: The value returned is the point that is halfway between p1 and p2 + + double x_midpoint, y_midpoint; + + //Compute the x and y midpoints + x_midpoint = (p1.get_x() + p2.get_x())/2; + y_midpoint = (p1.get_y() + p2.get_y())/2; + + //Construct a new point and return it + point midpoint(x_midpoint, y_midpoint); + + return midpoint; +} +``` + +- C++ return statement uses a copy constructor to copy the function's return value to a temporary location before returning the value to the calling program + +--- + +# Operator Overloading + +- **Header file** of the Point class + +``` +namespace scu_coen79_2A{ + + class point{ + + public: + //CONSTRUCTOR + //with default arguments (discussed later) + point(double initial_x = 0.0, double initial_y = 0.0); + + //MODIFICATION MEMBER FUNCTIONS + void shift(double x_amount, double y_amount); + void rotate90(); + + //CONSTANT MEMBER FUNCTIONS + double get_x() const { return x; }; + double get_y() const { return y; }; + + private: + double x; //x coordinate of this point + double y; //y coordinate of this point + }; +} +``` + +- A **binary function** is a function with two arguments +- When we develop a new data structure, we usually need to overload the binary operators +- For example: For the point class, **we cannot use the regular == operator to decide if two points are equal** + - We need to **overload** the `==` operator to compare particular member variables of the two objects + +``` +point p1, p2; +if(p1 == p2) cout << "Those points are equal." << endl; +``` + +- Defining a new meaning for an operator is called **overloading the operator** + +## Overloading Binary Comparison Operators + +- The name of the new function is `operator ==` + +``` +bool operator ==(const point& p1, const point& p2){ + //Postcondition: The value returned is true if p1 and p2 are identifcal; otherwise false is returned + + return (p1.get_x() == p2.get_x()) && (p1.get_y() == p2.get_y()); +} +``` + +- Note: + - When overloading an operator, **the common usages of that operator are still available** + - For example, we can use `==` to test the equality of two integers or two doubles + - For each use of `==`, the compiler determines the data type of the objects being compared and uses the appropriate comparison function + +## Overloading Binary Arithmetic Operators + +- Example: If we could add two of our points, then we might write this program: + +``` +point speed1(5, 7); +point speed2(1, 2); +point total; +total = speed1 + speed2; +cout << total.get_x() << endl; +cout << total.get_y() << endl; + +//Output: +//6 +//9 +``` + +``` +point operator +(const point& p1, const point& p2){ + //Postcondition: The sum of p1 and p2 is returned + + double x_sum, y_sum; + + //Compute the x and y of the sum + x_sum = (p1.get_x() + p2.get_x()); + y_sum = (p1.get_y() + p2.get_y()); + + point sum(x_sum, y_sum); + + return sum; +} +``` + +## Overloading Output and Input Operators + +- The standard C++ data types can be written and read using the **output operator <<** and **the input operator <<** + +``` +int i; +cin >> i; +cout << i; +``` + +- We would like to support the following input and output operations for the point class + +``` +point p; +cin << p; +cout << p; +``` + +- Overloading the output operator for the `point` class + +``` +ostream& operator <<(ostream& outs, const point& source); +``` + +- The data type of `cout` is `ostream`, which means "output stream" +- `ostream` class is part of the `iostream` library facility +- The `outs` parameter is a reference parameter +- The function can change the output stream (by writing to it), and the change will affect the actual argument (such as the standard output stream, `cout`) + +- Example: + +``` +cout << p; +``` + +- The first argument, `cout`, is an `ostream` +- The second argument, `p`, is a `point` + +- Also note that: + - The return type of the function is `ostream&` + - This return type means that the functions return as `ostream` + - Called a **reference return type** + - C++ permits the "**chaining**" of output statements such as the following: + - `cout << "The points are " << p << " and " << q << endl;` + +``` +ostream& operator <<(ostream& outs, const point& source){ + //Postcondition: The x and y coordinates of source have been written to outs + //Postcondition: The return value is the ostream outs + //Library facilities used: iostream + + outs << source.get_x() << " " << source.get_y(); + return outs; +} + +istream& operator >>(istream& ins, point& target){ + //Postcondition: The x and y coordinates of target have been read from ins + //Postcondition: The return value is the istream ins + //Library facilities used: iostream + //Friend of point class + + ins >> target.x >> target.y; + return ins; +} +``` + +- In the input function, the input is sent to the private member variables! However, only member functions can access private member variables +- Two solutions: + - To write new member functions to set a point's coordinates and use these member functions within the input function's implementation + - You can grant special permission for the input functino to access the private members of the point class - Called a **Friend Function** diff --git a/01-14_1.png b/01-14_1.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..41fc431 --- /dev/null +++ b/01-14_1.png |
